When was arkansas made a state

To the surprise of many old residents, the ownership of real estate in Little Rock was apparently still unsettled. In action sustained by federal court, Roswell Beebe claimed title to the entire town to secure, for the present owners, indisputable title. Beebe had found the original preemption claims to the property were not as strong as earlier supposed and, for a small fee from each property owner, he settled the titles once and for all.

But the state's economic situation was worsening. The bank directors claimed the action was taken to keep specie from leaving Arkansas, but issued its own paper money-corporation notes-in small denominations for the convenience of citizens who wanted to buy less than five dollars worth of a commodity or service. They were to be issued as exchange for bank notes. Almost 20 years later, the General Assembly would outlaw such low denomination paper money. When it became obvious that James Conway would not seek a second term, Archibald Yell declared his candidacy for governor as a Democrat.

The state of the economy would provide the next governor with a major challenge. While Arkansas could not fulfill the Spanish explorers' dreams of gold, other explorers found different valuables from the earth. Early in the year the Gazette announced the discovery of anthracite coal in northwest Arkansas.

By the end of the year, the Spadra Coal Company was in operation. Nationally, the Whig campaign for the presidency keyed on personalities rather than issues. William Henry Harrison, the hero of the Battle of Tippecanoe against the Shawnee Indians, was pictured as a simple man born in a log cabin, opposing the aristocratic Martin Van Buren. Arkansas Whigs attempted the same kind of campaign. In Little Rock, a log cabin and liberty pole were raised by the Whigs who appeared to have strong support, at least as long as they were serving hard cider.

At the culmination of a statewide convention, more than 1, Whigs gathered at the Arsenal grounds to listen to campaign speeches for Harrison. The local Whigs conceded the governor's race and the Democrat, Yell, won without opposition. Cross was reelected to Congress. Little Rock's new fire engine proved of little use without hooks, ladders and trained firemen as fire destroyed a half block of downtown on April Luck and a recent rain were credited for saving the surrounding area.

Less than two months later Little Rock was hit by a violent tornado which destroyed or damaged businesses, residences and steamboats.

The offices of the new Whig newspaper, the Arkansas Star, especially suffered from the storm. In a desperate and technically illegal, action, the Real Estate Bank sold its last bonds at reduced value to raise the money to pay interest on its other bonds and to meet further obligations. These bonds were then sold to an innocent third party.

The legal problems produced by these "Holford bonds" extended beyond the Civil War. The census gave Arkansawyers a chance to look back on the progress they had made in shaping a state out of the wilderness. In 20 years, the white population of Arkansas had grown from 12, to 77, people; free blacks now numbered , while, in only 59 had lived in Arkansas; and the number of slaves had grown from 1, to 19, In , Bradley and Perry became the 40th and 41st counties.

The Anthony House, which sat where Nicholas Peay had first built a hotel in , would become the most famous Little Rock hotel of the day. By the death of President Harrison, only one month after taking office, John Tyler became the first vice president to succeed to the presidency.

The combined effect of the new lenient federal bankruptcy law, passed on August 19 and the general decline in the state's economy, retarded the attempts of the state's two banks to regain solvency. Bank officials endeavored to foreclose on mortgages, but were often met with notices of bankruptcy.

Congress repealed the law in December found William Woodruff back in the newspaper and printing business. George Burnett, who had replaced Edward Cole as editor and proprietor of the Gazette, died at the age of 27 with his debt to Woodruff unpaid. Woodruff had to resume control until he could find a suitable buyer. Unfortunately, the bank's trustees were left to settle its accounts.

Arkansas bank notes were at 50 percent of face value and the state's economy, apparently so healthy a few years earlier, suffered greatly. In reaction to the dire economic situation and the failing banks, change and reform came to dominate General Assembly politics.

The new faces in the legislature found their targets in corruption, mismanagement and favoritism. But later in the session, a joint committee investigation into Sevier's role as a bank commissioner left him and fellow commissioner T.

Williamson, censured for several irregularities. Into this reform-minded General Assembly, William E. Woodruff went with a non- competitive bid for the office of state printer and a request for relief from the debt he incurred during his term as state treasurer.

He pointed out how valuable the Gazette had been for the election of Democrats and also warned he might be forced to sell the newspaper if he were not supported by his party. But such a political payoff did not appeal to the General Assembly, especially for someone who had been on the Board of the Real Estate Bank.

Woodruff lost on both issues and immediately made arrangements to sell the Gazette to the opposition Whig party. Though an excellent businessman and an effective campaigner for others, Woodruff was not graceful in his own defense. People's minds were quickly taken off the bad economy when Samuel G. Trowbridge, the new mayor of Little Rock, was arrested as the mastermind of a gang of clever burglars and counterfeiters.

This criminal case proved to be Little Rock's most sensational for many years. The economy's difficulties continued in Woodruff used the state of the economy as his excuse to sell his newspaper, and, with the Gazette now in Whig hands, the Democrats had no journal to influence public opinion.

This came at a time when the Johnson-Conway-Sevier family faced increased criticism, including an article in the Batesville News which listed 18 office-holding members of this "dynasty. The Democrats established the Arkansas Banner and imported Dr. Solon Borland, a combative editor from Louisville, Ky. Borland arrived just in time for the Democratic party convention in which Elias Conway was nominated for governor, but only 16 of the state's 42 counties were represented at the convention.

For the second time, Woodruff established a library for public benefit. After inflammatory editorials in the Whig and Democratic newspapers, the editors, Dr. Borland dominated both engagements-in the duel, coolly wounding Borden in the side after Borden's pistol misfired. Trying to bolster their chances for the coming election, the Democrats dropped Elias Conway as candidate for governor in favor of Dr. Daniel Chapman, their candidate for Congress. Chapman was replaced in the congressional race by Governor Yell who resigned on April 29 to stump the state against David Walker.

Chapman later withdrew from the governor's race due to ill health and a hasty party caucus picked Thomas Drew as the Democratic nominee. Another variable was added to the political picture by the demise of Senator Fulton, whose death was attributed to sleeping in a freshly painted room. Yell was known to have a strong interest in a Senate seat, but Chester Ashley immediately pitched in as a candidate, visiting 40 counties in 40 days.

Woodruff joined the campaign by actively assisting Drew and Ashley through his voluminous correspondence. In the election for governor, Drew won with a plurality of the vote.

Yell beat Walker handily in the race for Congress and the General Assembly elected Ashley to the remainder of Fulton's term in the Senate. The great flood of prompted a public meeting at Arkansas Post to propose a system of levees for the Arkansas and Mississippi rivers. The Texas question dominated national politics this election year. In June, the Senate rejected a proposed treaty of annexation, but James K. Polk campaigned for the presidency on an expansionist platform.

Through a joint resolution, Congress committed to the annexation of Texas in February. After action by the Texas Congress and approval by the electorate in Texas, Arkansas lost its place as the physical edge of the United States.

Texas was admitted to the Union on December 29 as the 28th state. By this time, most Arkansawyers supported the acquisition of Texas as a part of the nation's natural expansion. He was supported by the expansionist battle cry, "Fifty-four Forty or fight! Realizing his need for political support in anticipation of a re-election campaign in , Senator Ashley tried to enlist the aid of Governor Drew in forming a new Democratic political machine, but Drew declined.

Ashley also tried to buy the Arkansas Banner to be his editorial voice, but the Democratic Central Committee, controlled by the "dynasty," rejected his offer. Citizen involvement in the life of the community often took the form of public meetings, committees and associations. Public improvements were initiated this way and public concerns expressed. This year committees were formed to "foster the general welfare of the southwestern states," and to organize appropriate observance of the death of former President Andrew Jackson.

The recently organized Mechanics Association of Little Rock protested the "ruinous competition" of convict labor from the state penitentiary and the Little Rock Bridge Company was formed with hopes of spanning the Arkansas River at Little Rock and the Ouachita River at the military road.

Another form of public meeting aroused considerable dissention within the community as a day revival won 95 converts to the Christian Church. Most of the converts were from other established denominations in Little Rock, which resented the competition. The political season started early as the State Democratic Convention nominated Robert Ward Johnson, another "dynasty" member, for Arkansas's seat in the House.

Anticipating a strong challenge to his own re-election by Congressman Yell, Senator Ashley turned to Woodruff for assistance. Ashley sent letters to the newspapers through Woodruff and Woodruff himself began a series of letters to the Arkansas Banner.

When the editor of theBanner declined to publish one of Woodruff's letters, due to objectionable passages, Woodruff paid for its publication and took the opportunity to suggest the establishment of a new paper "which no power on earth can MUZZLE. War with Mexico suddenly overshadowed the political situation in Arkansas. Mexico had broken off diplomatic relations with the United States and a border skirmish on April 25 was followed by two victories of the United States Army under the command of General Zachary Taylor.

Tucker, John Selden Roane, C. Yell, therefore, was not in the state during the fall so could not campaign for the Senate. Further, news of a serious quarrel between Yell and his former ally, Solon Borland, reached Little Rock prior to the senatorial election in the General Assembly. Ashley won reelection handily and Yell lost his seat in Congress when Governor Drew, realizing Arkansas's best interests required a congressman in Washington, declared the seat vacant. Since Robert Ward Johnson had been elected to the term beginning in March , a special election had to be held in December to pick a temporary congressman.

Thomas Newton became the first Whig to win a statewide race in Arkansas though he only served for a few weeks. The legislature changed the method of casting a vote in Arkansas elections from voice to paper ballot, a more private form of voting and dealt with the general economic depression by reducing the expenses of government. Woodruff requested and again was denied, relief from his debt to the state.

Folks back home eagerly awaited news from the Mexican War, which was usually two months old by the time it reached Arkansas. A controversy arose when Albert Pike questioned the bravery of some of the Arkansas troops at Buena Vista. John S. Roane strongly defended those troops and a court of inquiry settled the issue, but not for long.

After their enlistments expired, Pike and Roane exchanged shots in a duel in Indian Territory without injury to either. Other Arkansawyers continued to fight the enemy. Two of them, Solon Borland and C. Danley, were captured, escaped and served with distinction in the assault on Mexico City. Borland returned to Little Rock on December 1, but Danley remained in a military hospital with a crippling wound to the knee.

Although the "dynasty" lost a strong ally when Yell died, others were waiting to accept leadership roles in that wing of the Democratic Party. Governor Thomas Drew remained the most established outsider in the "family" which still looked to Ambrose Sevier as its leader. Congressman Robert W. Johnson and State Auditor Elias Conway were the "dynasty" members most eager for higher office.

That leadership faced the formidable challenge of William E. Woodruff, whose press once helped bring the "dynasty" to power and who now represented the opposition Democratic faction. Woodruff's primary concern rested with promoting Chester Ashley, but he quickly latched onto war heroes Solon Borland and C.

Danley as potential opposition candidates. Whigs in Arkansas and throughout the nation, were already touting another war hero, General Zachary Taylor, as their candidate for president in The first few months of the year saw Woodruff and the Arkansas Democrat devote time to promoting Borland since Ashley was secure in his position. Sevier hoped a friend would be appointed by Governor Drew to hold his Senate seat, but Drew appointed Borland, who immediately announced his intention to remain in the position and seek election.

On April 29, death again altered Arkansas politics. Sebastian to his seat. Although Woodruff would remain in the newspaper business nearly five more years, the death of his closest friend depleted much of his spirit.

The festivities honored C. Ashley was buried in Mount Holly Cemetery, which he and Roswell Beebe had donated to the city in Having completed his mission to Mexico, Ambrose Sevier sought election to his old Senate seat, but his health was failing. The General Assembly elected Borland and Sebastian to the Senate seats they held by appointment, giving Sevier his first political defeat in more than 25 years of public service.

Sevier died at the home of his father-in-law, Benjamin Johnson, on December 31, weakened by defeat and disease. Governor Drew, re-elected without real opposition, announced he would retire after the adjournment of the seventh session of the General Assembly. John Selden Roane, a veteran of the war, received the Democratic Party nomination at the convention in December.

Nationally, peace with Mexico filled the news and Zachary Taylor Whig rode his popularity as a war hero to the White House. Taylor won in the first election conducted on a uniform election day, November 7. The Convention adopted several women's rights resolutions including a demand for women's suffrage and for less discrimination in employment and education.

While lead mining generated local interest in Arkansas, gold mining in California became an international obsession. Gold was discovered at Sutter's Mill in January and, by December, Fort Smith was gearing up as a jumping-off place to the gold fields. The second blow Woodruff and the opposition faction inflicted on the "dynasty" came when the General Assembly elected C. Danley to be state auditor over Elias Conway. Conway had served as auditor since before statehood, but Danley's war record brought him a narrow victory.

In a very close election, John S. Although Roane, from his duel with Pike, should have been disqualified by the state law which precluded a duelist from holding public office, the issue did not reach the courts and he took office as governor. Richard C. Byrd served as acting governor until Roane's inauguration. Gold fever swept across the country this year. The Arkansas Route became one of four principal avenues to California.

King and W. Stevenson were elected officers of the first Little Rock company setting out for the gold fields. Marcy commanding a military escort as far as Santa Fe, the company reached California in early October. The Arkansas Route overland proved a long one, but these "argonauts" arrived before other Arkansawyers who took the water route around South America.

Arkansas stood to benefit as one of the primary jumping-off places to the gold fields. The tide of emigration touched Little Rock also. Wanting to take advantage of the gold rush, one Little Rock committee drafted a memorandum to Congress requesting a railroad route be surveyed from Arkansas to Santa Fe to the Pacific Ocean.

The Mexican War enlarged the United States, with lands in the new southwest stretching all the way to the Pacific Ocean. The question of allowing slavery in this new territory revived sectional conflicts between the North and the South, as did concern over the slave trade and the return of fugitive slaves to the South.

Senate debate on these issues was the greatest in congressional history as John C. Calhoun and Daniel Webster wrestled with Henry Clay and his proposed compromises.

Stricken by a terminal illness, Calhoun listened to the reading of his arguments against compromise and against a United States government which would not provide special protection for the South. Measures, later known as the Compromise of , were finally passed. They included entry of California as a free state; "popular sovereignty," through election by the people, on the slavery question in the newly established territories of New Mexico and Utah; strengthening of the fugitive slave law; and the abolition of the slave trade in Washington, D.

The latest sheriff's census gave Arkansas a total population of ,, with free Negroes and 45, slaves. One indication of a frontier is the predominance of men to women. In , less than 38 percent of the white population was female; now, more than 46 percent were 82, men; 70, women. Little Rock counted 2, residents.

Of the , acres of land in cultivation in the state's 51 counties, only 24 percent were in cotton. Although public schools would not be permanently established until after the Civil War, education in Arkansas was a concern of many. The first kindergarten was started by Mrs. Woodruff complained of legislative squandering of the federal allocations of land which were to have gone to support public education.

Woodruff bought the Arkansas Gazette, which lay close to bankruptcy. There was little he kept except its name and its tradition as the oldest newspaper in the state. Most people in Arkansas farmed for a living and strong agriculture in the Arkansas and Mississippi River lowlands depended on a proposed system of levees.

In January, Governor Roane approved an act which provided for the reclaiming of swamp and overflowed lands recently donated by the federal government. The proceeds from these land sales were used to begin levee work on the rivers adjoining them. By September, a contract was let for levee construction from Bayou Meto to Hornbuckle's Bayou and more contracts followed. The state finally acted on an federal land donation for internal improvements by creating Internal Improvement Commissions in each county.

Roswell Beebe, hoping funds could be pooled to build a railroad, initiated a convention of internal improvement commissioners, which recommended the combining of funds and the construction of "good" roads for the state. Another federal action benefiting the state was the creation of a second district court for Arkansas. One district would serve most of the state; the other, western Arkansas and Indian territory.

Although the western district did not yet have a separate judge, a district attorney and marshall were stationed at Van Buren. Later the court site was moved to Fort Smith, where, beginning in , "hanging judge" Isaac Parker dispensed justice. The state penitentiary was destroyed by fire for the second time in six years.

A contract was let to John Robins of Little Rock for the construction of new workshops, a jailhouse and an enclosing stone wall. Arkansas publicized its mineral resources by shipping a block of Little Rock granite to Washington to be part of the Washington Monument and a 1, pound specimen of lead and silver ore headed for the London World's Fair. Hopeful of keeping the newspaper in family hands, William Woodruff named his son, Alden, editor of the Gazette and Democrat.

Johnson, younger brother of Congressman Bob Johnson. Death claimed three pioneers of early Arkansas in General Matthew Arbuckle, longtime commander of the army on the Arkansas frontier; Andrew Scott, one of the three original judges of the Superior Court of Arkansas Territory; and James Miller, first governor of the Territory. As gold fever decreased, what might be called "railroad fever" struck Arkansas.

A large railroad convention met in Little Rock and decided the Memphis to Fulton at the Texas border route through Little Rock should be the first line to receive financial aid. In the flurry of activity, three railroad companies were incorporated, but, to be successful, each company needed a land grant from the federal government. Bills by Senator Borland and Representative Johnson were pending in Congress, but no action was taken.

The hope for railroads played a role in the governor's race between Elias Conway, nominated by the "dynasty" Democrats and Bryan Smithson, an independent Democrat endorsed by the Whigs. Smithson campaigned on internal improvements, focusing on the proposed Central Railroad. The practical Conway suggested the state first ought to have a system of good dirt roads. Woodruff, still opposing the "Family," gave the support of the Gazetteand Democrat to Smithson, labeling Conway the "dirt roads" candidate.

Senator Borland continued to live up to his combative reputation when he broke the nose of J. Kennedy, superintendent of the census bureau. Kennedy insulted Borland in an effort to change his mind over a proposed census publication. The subsequent punch in the face brought Arkansas more adverse national publicity. Beginning a long and prosperous involvement with river commerce in Arkansas, Major John D.

Adams acquired a line of steamboats which engaged in the transporting of United States mail from Napolean to Little Rock. Riverboat travel sometimes proved to be a risky business with dangers from snags, collisions and especially explosions and fires. Nationally, the Whig Party nominated a presidential candidate for the last time, General Winfield Scott, who lost to Democratic nominee Franklin Pierce in the November 2 election.

Harriet Beecher Stowe's book Uncle Tom's Cabin, a sentimental anti-slavery novel, became a best seller in the North after its publication in March. Its neighbors are Missouri to the north, Tennessee and Mississippi to the east, Louisiana to the south, Texas to the southwest and Oklahoma to the west. The name Arkansas was used by the early French explorers to refer to the Quapaw people—a prominent indigenous group in the area—and to the river along which they settled.

The term was likely a corruption of akansea, the word applied to the Quapaw by another local indigenous community, the Illinois. Little Rock, the state capital, is located in the central part of the state. In , Little Rock Central High School became the focus of national attention when federal troops were deployed to the campus to enforce integration.

But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! Subscribe for fascinating stories connecting the past to the present. Tennessee became the 16th state of the union in It is just miles wide, but stretches miles from the Appalachian Mountains boundary with North Carolina in the east to the Mississippi River borders with Missouri and Arkansas in the west.

At Four Corners, in the southeast, Utah meets Colorado, New Mexico and Arizona at right angles, the only such meeting of states in the country. Utah became the 45th member of the union on Jan. Louisiana sits above the Gulf of Mexico at the mouth of the Mississippi River, bordered by Arkansas to the north, Mississippi to the east and Texas to the west.

Originally colonized by the French during the 18th century, it became U. The only successful anti-Family politician was Thomas C. Hindman , who moved to eastern Arkansas from Mississippi, opened one newspaper in Helena and another in Little Rock to support his positions, was elected to the U.

House of Representatives in , and put together a faction that defeated the Family candidate for governor in The Whigs put up a spirited opposition to the Democrats, but no Whig candidate for governor, U. Congress, or president ever won more than forty-five percent of the popular vote, and none was sent to the Senate. State elections usually revolved around personalities rather than issues. Partisans demonstrated a great deal of enthusiasm in pseudonymous essays in the press, and candidates engaged in the boisterous campaigning of the period.

Both parties supported the economic opportunity that could make a farmer into a slaveholder and a slaveholder into a planter. Aside from the disastrous experiment with banking, the Democrats did little to address the problem of internal transportation and failed to create an effective system of public education.

Support for the institution of slavery was strong, although less so in the highlands than in the lowlands. There was some sectional hostility between owners of small farms in the highlands and the lowland planters, which was particularly evident during the process of creating a state constitution. For the most part, however, the planters dominated state government with the support of the yeoman-farmer majority and the artisans, businessmen, and professionals.

When North-South sectionalism became bitter, Arkansas never wavered from its regional loyalty. Political enemies Robert W. Johnson and Hindman both adamantly supported slavery and Southern nationalism. The northwest counties required some convincing on the issue of secession, but a largely united Arkansas left the Union along with the rest of the upper South after the Battle of Fort Sumter.

Slavery Slaves made up only thirteen percent of the American population in eastern Arkansas in , and that dropped to eleven percent in because most of the early settlers were hunters and subsistence farmers. During the controversy over slavery that led to the Missouri Compromise of , Congress came close to prohibiting the institution in the newly-created Arkansas Territory but failed to do so.

The number of slaves on the U. Census for the state grew to fifteen percent in and twenty percent a decade later. Between and , it rose from twenty percent to twenty-six percent, still well below the fifty-five percent for the South as a whole. Ninety percent of slaves lived in the lowlands.

In Lafayette County and Chicot County on the eve of the Civil War, the black population was more than seventy percent; it was about forty percent in other counties along the Louisiana and Mississippi rivers. Enslaved people appear to have lived much as they did in other parts of the South, although Arkansas slaves, like their owners, were almost all migrants and had often traveled considerable distances to get where they were.

Their treatment varied greatly depending on their owners, but most probably had food , clothing, and housing that was not much worse than what poor laborers had in the North. On the other hand, their birthrate was significantly lower and mortality rate higher than those of white people. They were subject to severe punishment, and brutal whipping was not uncommon.

Running away, often for short distances and brief periods of time, was a relatively common form of resistance that could lead to punishment but also improvements in treatment and working conditions. The slave family was an important institution, despite the predatory sexual behavior of some slave owners.

The black culture of music, dance, and folktales also flourished where slaves lived together on plantations. Plantations represented less than ten percent of slave-holding units but were home to nearly fifty percent of enslaved people. There was a large slave population in Little Rock that functioned as artisans and house servants.

While less than one in five slaves were members of white Christian denominations, black Christianity was an important aspect of slave culture. Society and Culture Aside from politics, the leading cultural interest of Arkansans was religion. Methodists were in the majority in the early years, but Baptists were catching up fast by the Civil War. There were a significant number of Presbyterians but far less than either of the first two, and they were increasing at a rate well below the population growth rate.

These groups identified with and promoted the evangelicalism that was the dominant form of worship throughout the South. Disciples of Christ were also present in significant numbers. There were probably fewer Episcopalians and Roman Catholics , but their traditions were important elements of the religious culture.

Women were as important to the development of Arkansas as men were, although they were in a minority well into the statehood period. Presumably responding to the economic opportunity provided by Arkansas land and the need for laborers, they had children at a rate higher than in any other state or territory.

They worked hard, often at manual labor, and took responsibility for farms and even plantations when their husbands were absent. They were often lonely, missing the support of family and friends they had left behind. Black women endured a special burden of slavery, raising children who were valuable property to their masters and subject to being sold or taken away.

Early Arkansas had a reputation for violence, lawlessness, and economic indolence. Some basis for that came from the Western and frontier quality of the territory that attracted rough men and provided cover for the criminally inclined. Southerners also brought a strong sense of honor that required men to respond violently when insulted, and the competition for political office led to dueling and also less-regulated combat, such as when John Wilson, speaker of the Arkansas House of Representatives, stabbed Representative J.

Anthony to death during a legislative debate in Less spectacular forms of violence were common, and men routinely carried bowie knives, sometimes called Arkansas toothpicks, and pistols on the streets of Little Rock. The reputation for economic backwardness was supported by the large number of poor squatters and yeoman farmers. The still-developing plantation economy left many planters living much like their poorer neighbors. There were few antebellum mansions in Arkansas.

Economic inequality, however, was as severe as almost any place in the United States, with ten percent of households owning seventy percent of taxable wealth. Conclusion In once sense, Arkansas was a work in progress when its development was interrupted by the Civil War. For example, its population was twice as large in as it had been in On the other hand, the shape of its society and culture was clear.

The geographic difference between the mountain areas of the north and west and the lowlands of Mississippi Delta and the south had created one society of small farms and another that contained enough of plantation culture to exercise economic and political leadership.

In an unrecognized struggle between the influence of the American frontier and that of the South, the latter had won, and it determined the destiny of the state. For additional information: Bolton, Charles S. Arkansas, — Remote and Restless. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, Territorial Ambition: Land and Society in Arkansas: — Brown, Carl E.

Brown, Walter Lee. A Life of Albert Pike. Gerstaecker, Friedrich. Wild Sports in the Far West. Introduction and notes by Edna L. Steeves and Harrison R. Maley, John, and F.

Andrew Dowdy, ed. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, McNeilly, Donald P. Milson, Andrew J. Arkansas Travelers: Geographies of Exploration and Perception, — Nuttall, Thomas.

Edited by Savoie Lottinville. Norman: University of Oklahoma, Ross, Margaret J. Arkansas Gazette: The Early Years, — Little Rock: Arkansas Gazette Foundation, Schuette, Shirley. Smith, David A. Toudji, Sonia. Athens: University of Georgia Press, White, Lonnie J. Politics on the Southwestern Frontier: Arkansas Territory, —